Influences of Biological Factors on Individual Personality

Influences of Biological Factors on Individual Personality Examine to what extend biological factors account for an individuals’ personality? The term ‘personality’ is used in general conversation in many ways. When psychologists discuss personality they are concerned primarily with individual differences – the characteristics that distinguish one individual from another. This essay discusses personality in terms of the biological approaches that view characteristics as traits and considers the roles of genetics and environmental influences in the stability of individual characteristics. A lot of evidence points to the conclusion that individual differences, mostly measured as psychological traits are substantially influenced by genetic factors (Carver Scheier, 2000). This conclusion raises questions about research and theory in Psychology in terms of the variation of these traits in the population and the existence of psychopathology (Bouchard, 2004). Trait psychology has a clear set of assumptions including the heritability of traits and a causal model attributing individual differences in brain function into behavioural and learning differences (Gale Eysenck, 1992). The behaviour and molecular genetic evidence confirm that biology has its role in personality traits (Carey, 2002). Since the 1950’s Eysenck claimed that most of the differences we observe between people’s personalities can be accounted for by just three factors, expressed as bi-polar dimensions: (1) introversion-extraversion; (2) neuroticism-stability and (3) psychoticism. Eysenck (1994) also gave his typology a biological basis, linking it not with body fluids but with the central nervous system (introversion-extraversion) and the autonomous nervous system (neuroticism-stability). He proposed that individual differences in introversion-extraversion are explained by inherited differences in the excitatory potential of central nervous systems (CNS). Individuals whose excitatory potential is low are predisposed towards extraversion since the bias in their CNS is towards cells being inactive (inhibition) rather than active (excitation). This means extraverts require more going on around them for their brains to function adequately, and to maintain a reasonable level of alertness, than introverts do. Extraverts are ‘stimuli-hungry’ and not only have a CNS which switches off more readily, they take longer to dissipate the inhibition that has built up in their CNS while attending to a stimulus. Conversely, introverts, through their high excitatory potential, are already reasonably alert and thus less prone to switching their attention to other sources of stimuli; in other words, introverts are less easily distracted than extroverts. Introverts would also be less likely to have what is termed as ‘micro sleeps’ (switching off for a few seconds), because they dissipate any inhibition much more rapidly than extraverts do. Even before Eysenck’s theory was available, large individual differences had been observed in the ease with which individuals, in some occupational settings, doing jobs like radar and sonar operations, could cope with the low levels of signals on their screens or reported signals when none were present, while the performance of others seemed relatively unaffected by the low level of simulation (Eysenck Eysenck, 1985). Eysenck’s theory seemed to offer an explanation of this and other similar differences of behaviour. Extraverts because of the low level of activation in their nervous systems, find it difficult to cope with environments which provide low levels of unvarying stimulation. Introverts, on the other hand, with central nervous systems already reasonably activated find these environments ideal. Conversely they would be swamped by high levels of stimulation, which would cause a considerable reduction in their performance. Much of the impact of these physiological differences on psychological differences between individuals was presumed to arise from its effect on an individual’s conditionability (Eysenck, 1994). Introverts, since they build up inhibition slowly, are easier to condition than extraverts. This implies that introverts are constitutionally more likely to assimilate, through conditioning, the rules, obligations and attitudes of their social environment. Conversely, the impact of socialisation on extraverts is attenuated by their weaker conditionability. Extraverts are therefore less likely to acquire conforming and conscientious behaviour patterns than introverts. Though Eysenck, for the most part, has focused on exploring the biological substructure of the introversion-extraversion dimension, he has suggested that an individual’s position on the second dimension, neuroticism-stability, reflects the stability of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is the part of the nervous system, not directly under the conscious control, that carries a number of reflex activities; it is also involved in certain emotional responses. Some people inherit a labile ANS, which responds vigorously to stress and also takes some time to return to baseline. In addition, they experience more spontaneous activity, that is, shifts in activation which are not clearly attributable to external events. Conversely, some individuals are born with stable ANS characterised by weaker responses to stress, a more rapid return to baseline and spontaneous activity. This means individuals with a labile ANS are constitutionally more prone to worry, anxiety, embarrassment and stress than those with a stabile ANS. Thus, individuals towards the neuroticism end of the dimension have greater ‘free floating’ anxiety which, through conditioning, can become attached to events or people. This may mean that social interaction can, for some individuals, become ‘loaded’ with a considerable amount of anxiety. However, an important implication of Eysenck’s theory is that neuroticism is normally distributed along a continuum. In other words, there is not a discontinuity between normal people and conditions such as agoraphobia (i.e. fear of open spaces), which are simply the result of somewhat higher levels of anxiety response. If the agoraphobics can learn a more neutral response he or she will be able to resume a normal life. However, despite clear connections between an individual’s biological status and neuroticism, there are clearly very significant environmental considerations. Tong et al., (2000) found that levels of neuroticism (N) were causally related to environmental factors and, in particular, to the failure of affect ional bonds provided by a social network of friends and acquaintances. Similarly, Bouchard (2004) found that women with children at home under 15 years old and men and women who are unemployed are more likely to have neurotic problems. Thus, 25.4% of unemployed women and 13.6% of unemployed men had neurotic illness as compared with 8.9% of employed women and 5.5% of full or part-time employed men. The employed status of the subject’s spouse also plays a part in the prevalence of neurotic symptoms. Men with a wife at home are less at risk than those who have a wife at work. In women, those with an unemployed husband at home are more at risk than their peers with a husb and at work. Thus neuroticism, though having a large genetic component, seems to be also partly environmental, although the direction of cause-and-effect in such studies should not be presumed. Children in maturation process value immensely consistent parental, familial and peer encouragement and emotional support (Bouchard, 2004). Inadequate or culturally atypical child rearing practices, parental illness, marital disharmony and family disturbance are all associated with personality disorder. Nevertheless, the role of learning cannot be over-estimated. Many personality disorders, for example, can be described in terms of inappropriate thresholds to incoming stimuli (Krueger Markon, 2006). Low thresholds to frustration or tolerance lead to impulsive behaviour or loss of temper. A high threshold in relation to emotional sensitivity leads to over defensiveness and emotional coldness. Thus, a child with little innate tendency to loss of temper but, in a family where tempers are regularly lost and are socially effective and valued, will model this behaviour and lower her threshold. Impulsive behaviour may be more likely in children where impulsive behaviour flourishes in the f amily and subculture. In terms of genes and cognitive abilities, several researchers have estimated the separate effects of genes and environment in the expression of intelligence by comparing monozygotic and dizygotic twins raised in the same environment with those raised in different environments (Bouchard et al., 1990). These can be viewed as experiments of nature (monozygotic and dizygotic twins) and experiments of nurture (raised in birth or adoptive families). Genes and environment are both correlated in birth families because the same parents provide both genes and environment. In adoptive families, the birth parents provide the genes and the adoptive families provide the environment. These studies have demonstrated that the correlation of the IQs of siblings raised in different environments is low, just over 0.20 (Bouchard McGue, 1981). Monozygotic twins of course share 100 percent of their genes, whereas dizygotic twins and other siblings share 50 percent. Clearly genes have stronger effect on I Q. However, the outcomes of twins studies do not refer to individual members of the populations under investigation. In other words, conclusions about the relationship between genes and IQ do not apply to individuals regarding the research evidence available. Nevertheless, the decreasing role of the environment in IQ seems to be counter-intuitive because research by Petrill et al., (1998) has shown that the longer twins experience different environments the more dissimilar should become. In other words, the effect of the environment on IQ is important in childhood but becomes increasingly unimportant in adulthood (Petrill et al., 1998). Nowadays, trait psychology has been challenged in terms of whether or not should we maintain individual differences in the functioning of broad neural systems as the principal explanations of personality? Cognitive and social-cognitive models may provide viable alternatives considering the impact of moderating factors. Further, both Eysenck and Gray assume that each trait relates to a single, key underlying system, but there might not be any simple one-to-one mappings between brain functions and traits (Zuckerman, 1991). These challenges presented by cognitive theorists and multiple-systems models of traits may be met in various ways. For example, improvements in the methodology for assessing brain functions may reveal that Eysenck and Gray are correct. Another approach maintains the centrality of neurophysiological explanations and seeks to develop more complex physiological models (e.g. Zuckerman, 1991). Furthermore, an alternative is to consider cognitive variables as mediating co nstructs so that they facilitate neural processes. In conclusion, some personality characteristics (such as general mood and energy level) are influenced by inherited biological factors. Eysenck (1985; 1994) thought that personality was determined more by genes than by environmental factors. Various personality attributes seem to be identifiable within weeks of birth and remain relatively stable in each child during the first three years. Although this clearly attests to the large genetic influence on early personality development, these biological factors cannot be viewed in a vacuum. Experiences that are common to the culture and the subculture group (such as gender roles) and experiences that are unique to the individual interact with inborn predispositions to shape personality. Personality develops in a constant interactive process between biological potential, environmental circumstances and social opportunity. References Bouchard, T. J. Jr. (2004). Genetic Influence on Human Psychological Traits: A Survey. Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol 13 (4), August, 148-151. Bouchard, T.J. Jr. McGrue M. (1990). Genetic and rearing environmental influences on adult personality: an analysis of adopted twins reared apart. Journal of Personality, (58), 263-292. Carver, C.S. Scheier, M.F. (2000). Perspectives on personality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Carey, G. (2002). Human Genetics for the Social Sciences. London: Sage Eysenck, H. J. (1994). Personality: Biological foundations. In P. A. Vernon (Ed.) The Neurophysiology of Individual Differences. London: Academic Press. Eysenck, H. J. Eysenck, M. W. (1985). Personality and individual differences. New York: Plenum. Gale A Eysenck M W (Eds.)(1992). Handbook of individual differences. London: Sage. Krueger, R. B. Markon K. E. (2006). Understanding psychopathology: melding behavior genetics, personality, and quantitative psychology to develop an empirically based model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15 (3), 113-117. Matthews G. Gilliland K. (1999). The personality theories of H. Eysenck and J. A. Gray: a comparative review. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 583-626. Petrill, S. A., Plomin, R., Berg, S. (1998). The genetic and relationship environmental relationship between general and specific cognitive abilities in twins age 80 and older. Psychological Science, 9, 183-189. Tong, H. J., Donald, W. P. Wade H. (2000) Genetic Influences on Neural and Behavioral Functions. CRC Press. Zuckerman, M. (1991) Psychobiology of Personality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Cirque Du Soleil

From a group of 20 street performers at its beginnings in 1984, Cirque du Soleil is a major Quebec-based organization providing high-quality artistic entertainment. The company has 5,000 employees, including more than 1,300 artists from more than 50 different countries. Cirque du Soleil has brought wonder and delight to more than 100 million spectators in more than 300 cities in over forty countries on six continents. For more information about Cirque du Soleil, visit www. cirquedusoleil. com. The mission The mission of Cirque du Soleil is to invoke the imagination, provoke the senses and evoke the emotions of people around the world. The Creation of Cirque du Soleil It all started in Baie-Saint-Paul, a small town near Quebec City in Canada. There, in the early eighties, a band of colourful characters roamed the streets, striding on stilts, juggling, dancing, breathing fire, and playing music. They were Les Echassiers de Baie-Saint-Paul (the Baie-SaintPaul Stiltwalkers), a street theatre group founded by Gilles Ste-Croix. Already, the townsfolk were impressed and intrigued by the young performers – including Guy Laliberte who founded Cirque du Soleil. The troupe went on to found Le Club des talons hauts (the High Heels Club), and then, in 1982, organized La Fete foraine de Baie-Saint-Paul, a cultural event in which street performers from all over met to exchange ideas and enliven the streets of the town for a few days. La Fete foraine was repeated in 1983 and 1984. Le Club des talons hauts attracted notice, and Guy Laliberte, Gilles Ste-Croix and their cronies began to cherish a crazy dream: to create a Quebec circus and take the troupe travelling around the world. In 1984, Quebec City was celebrating the 450th anniversary of Canada’s discovery by Jacques Cartier, and they needed a show that would carry the festivities out across the province. Guy Laliberte presented a proposal for a show called Cirque du Soleil (Circus of the Sun), and succeeded in convincing the organizers. And Cirque du Soleil hasn’t stopped since! In 1984, 73 people worked for Cirque du Soleil. Today, the company hires 5,000 employees worldwide, including more than 1,300 artists. At the Montreal International Headquarters alone, there are close to 2,000 employees. More than 100 types of occupations can be found at Cirque. The company’s employees and artists represent more than 50 nationalities and speak 25 different languages. More than 100 million spectators have seen a Cirque du Soleil show since 1984. Close to 15 million people will see a Cirque du Soleil show in 2013. Cirque du Soleil hasn’t received any grants from the public or private sectors since 1992. Cirque du Soleil’s Areas of Activity In 2013, Cirque du Soleil will present simultaneously some 20 different shows around the world. Its challenge is to continue to grow while offering its creators the freedom to dream the wildest dreams and make them come true. The heart of Cirque du Soleil’s activity remains creating live shows and presenting them under big tops or in theatres. Since 1984 close to 200 creators from the four corners of the globe have contributed their talents to this end. In the past few years Cirque du Soleil has been developing business initiatives based on its shows. a. Cirque du Soleil has acquired extensive experience in organizing unforgettable private gatherings as well as major public events (World Exposition Shanghai 2010, Expo Zaragoza 2008, the show-event for the 400th anniversary of Quebec City). For the past few years the Cirque du Soleil Events team has brought its creativity to a most discriminating clientele with the same energy and spirit that characterizes each of the company’s shows. Cirque du Soleil is offering a full range of products for retail sale under the Big Top, at resident show boutiques and on the Internet. The company is seeking reliable partners to design, develop, market and distribute unique products which will bring â€Å"artful living† into the daily lives of Cirque du Soleil aficionados. Cirque du Soleil also develops licensing agreements with partners wishing to market products and services that leverage Cirque du Soleil’s creativity in areas as diverse as hospitality (restaurants, bars, spas, etc. and fashion (Desigual). c. In December 2012, Cirque du Soleil and Bell Media created a new joint venture to develop media content for television, film, digital, and gaming platforms. Cirque du Soleil Media’s mandate is to develop original entertainment projects, leveraging Cirque du Soleil’s creative inventiveness and resources, consumer insight, and infrastructure, with Bell Media’s production experience, media pla tforms, and diverse distribution capabilities.

The Path Of Human Evolution Was Always Been Full Of...

The path of human evolution was always been full of challenges. However, unlike other species on the planet man s evolutionary progression is predominantly social. Changes that human opted for are not that of adding body parts to better survive and to improve themselves. Man preferred the psycho social path of growth and development. It was his way not to simply be subservient to the forces of nature in terms of providing him the basis for advancement as a species. On the contrary, the human race directed the course of its own evolution. This covers an active and effortful development by instilling things that are progressive and suppressing opposing tendencies. The effort to mold humans into a more evolved and more advanced†¦show more content†¦The idea of crime and punishment as well as an action and communal response have been conditioned into the human consciousness that human behavior has this as an integral component. On the social level, this leads to the creation of an environment wherein individuals may pursue holistic development and coexist with others. This is the fundamental reason by other creatures; especially predatory kinds do not have society and civilization. Furthermore, human history clearly establishes that the human race constantly socially engineers itself to attain almost everything. Other species do not actively preserve the environment. However, the human race s idea is that such act of preservation is essential for his survival. It can be conceded that this is the result of environmental abuse that man caused but the same can be said of other species when they devastate their own habitat.This establishes that the sum of human civilizations, current attributes as well as achievements are evolutionary developments brought about by social engineering. And this will continue so long as the human race exists In the Green Engineering segment, we have highlighted the following as promising career opportunities. Profession 1: E nvironmental Engineers Environmental Engineers are expected to enjoy the Golden Time over the next 10 to 20 years, those who had a visionShow MoreRelatedUsing Proofs to Establish a Case for Gods Existence: McCloskey1374 Words   |  6 Pagesexistence of the universe and the relationship to God that are found in the book Philosophy of Religion by C. Stephen Evans and R. Zachary Manis. Some believe that the universe has always existent with no starting point, my answer to that would be that the universe could have always existed and there for God could have always existed too. 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Definition and Examples of Multiple Exclamation Marks

An  exclamation point  (!)  is a mark of  punctuation  used after a word, phrase, or sentence that expresses a strong emotion. It ends emphatic statements, says English Grammar Punctuation, a reference guide. William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White, in their famous Elements of Style,  say that: The exclamation mark is to be reserved for after true exclamations and commands. And Merriam-Websters Guide to Punctuation and Style  notes that the exclamation point is used to mark a forceful comment or exclamation. It is also called an  exclamation mark  or tellingly, in newspaper jargon, a  shriek. These sources and others may define it with different vocabulary, but they all agree on one thing: The exclamation point is possibly the most overused punctuation mark in the English language.  Multiple exclamation points  (or marks)—two or, often, three exclamation marks  (!!!) following a word or sentence—should be even rarer still in good writing. History The exclamation point was first used by printers at the end of the 15th century, according to  Thomas MacKellar, in his 1885 book, The American Printer: A Manual of Typography. MacKellar also noted that the punctuation meant admiration or exclamation as well as surprise, astonishment, rapture, and the like sudden emotions of the mind. The mark, itself, comes from Latin, says  Smithsonian.com: In Latin, the exclamation of joy was  io,  where the i was written above the o. And, since all their letters were written as capitals, an I with an O below it looks a lot like an exclamation point. It wasn’t until 1970 that the exclamation point had its own key on the keyboard, the Smithsonian notes, adding that before that you had to type a period, and then use the backspace to go back and stick an apostrophe above it. When executives dictated to secretaries, they would say bang to indicate the exclamation point, leading to the term  interbang,  a  nonstandard punctuation  mark in the form of a question mark superimposed on an exclamation point (sometimes appearing as ?!).  It is used to end a rhetorical question or a simultaneous question and exclamation. Some writers, then, began using  multiple exclamation points  as a logical outgrowth of the interbang and single exclamation mark to add even more emphasis to words, phrases, and sentences. Purpose The use of the exclamation point—and, even more so, multiple exclamation points—has been met with plenty of controversy and criticism. Smithsonian notes this less-than-pleased response  by F. Scott Fitzgerald to the use of multiple exclamation points: â€Å"Cut out all those exclamation marks. An exclamation mark is like laughing at your own jokes.† Author Elmore Leonard was even more incensed by their use: â€Å"You are allowed no more than two or three per 100,000 words of prose.† Leonard also said that use of  multiple exclamation points  is the sign of a diseased mind. Still, exclamation points do have a purpose in the English language, according to the late  Rene Jack Cappon, a longtime editor at the Associated Press and author of  The Associated Press Guide to Punctuation. Cappon said that exclamation points are certainly not subtle; instead, they act like a kettle drum, noisily calling readers attention to a given word, phrase, or sentence. Echoing the very earliest use of this punctuation mark, Cappon says you should use exclamation points to convey pain, fear, astonishment, anger, and disgust, as in: â€Å" Ouch! My toes! cries one, a bowling ball dropped on his foot. Somebody  help  me! screams a damsel in distress. Look, a real unicorn! Astonishment. Get thee behind me, Satan! Rage and disgust. Cappon notes that you rarely run into emotional outbursts like these, so you should use single or multiple exclamation points sparingly. He and other grammar and punctuation experts point out that you should generally let the words speak for themselves, set off by a simple  period,  comma, or  semicolon. Otherwise, you risk damaging your credibility by constantly yelling at your readers, similar to someone screaming fire in a crowded theater, even when there is not a hint of smoke. Rules for Using Exclamation Marks Richard Bullock, Michal Brody, and Francine Weinberg note in the The Little Seagull Handbook, a grammar, punctuation, and style guide used on many college campuses, that you should use exclamation points to express strong emotion or add emphasis to a statement or command. They give this example of when to use an exclamation point, from Susan Jane Gilmans Hypocrite in a Pouffy White Dress: Tales of Growing Up Groovy and Clueless, who described seeing The Rolling Stones band member Keith Richards: Keith, we shrieked as the car drove away. Keith, we love you! Encountering a member of the iconic rock band—and the shrieking that accompanied the sighting—would, indeed, call for at least one exclamation point—and perhaps more!!!—to emphasize the excitement of the moment. Another example of when to use exclamation points is illustrated in this pithy quote from Tennessee Williams in Camino Real. Make voyages! Attempt them! Theres nothing else. You can also use multiple exclamation points in  informal  or comic writing, or to express  sarcasm, as in:   I loved your last email! OMG did I LOVE it!!! The point is that the writer of the above sentences didnt really love the email. She was being  ironic, which the multiple exclamation points help to show. Additionally, David Crystal, in Making a Point: The Persnickety Story of English Punctuation, gives these examples where the  contexts  dictate when exclamation marks would be acceptable, even expected: Interjections -  Oh!Expletives -  Damn!Greetings -  Happy Xmas!!!Calls -  Johnny!Commands -  Stop!Expressions of surprise -  What a mess!!!Emphatic statements -  I want to see you now!Attention-getters -  Listen carefully!Loud speech in dialogue -  Im in the garden!Ironic comments -  He paid, for a change!  or . . .  for a change (!)Strong mental attitudes -  Hardly! he thought But there are many other instances where you should omit exclamation points, as in this example from The Little Seagull Handbook. It was so close, so low, so huge and fast, so intent on its target that I swear to you, I swear to you, I felt the vengeance and rage emanating from the plane.- Debra Fontaine, Witnessing Bill Walsh, the late copy chief for the  Washington Post, noted in The Elephants of Style: A Trunkload of Tips on the Big Issues and Gray Areas of Contemporary American English that you should omit exclamation points (and other punctuation marks) when they are, essentially, gimmicky decorations for company names. So, says Walsh, you would write Yahoo,  not Yahoo! The Associated Press Stylebook also notes that you place exclamation points within quote marks when they are part of the quoted material, as in: How wonderful! he exclaimed.Never! she shouted. But place exclamation points outside of quotation marks when they are not part of the quoted material: I hated reading Spensers Faerie Queene! And never use other punctuation marks, such as a comma, after an exclamation point: Wrong: Halt!, the corporal cried.Right: Halt! the corporal cried. So, when using exclamation points remember that less is more. Use this punctuation mark—whether it be one, two, or three exclamation points—only when the context calls for it. Otherwise, let your prose speak for themselves and save the mighty exclamation point for extreme circumstances, for heavens sake!!!